History 240

Eighteenth-Century Wars of Empire

 

Objectives

•          Understand the causes and results of the 18th Century Wars of Empire:

–       The War of the Austrian Succession 1740-48

–       The Seven Years War 1756-63

–       The War of the American Revolution 1775-83

 

War of the Austrian Succession

A series of Wars:

•          Prussia and Austria over Silesia

•          France and Austria over the break up of the Austrian Empire

•          Spain and Austria over Italy

•          Great Britain against France and Spain for naval supremacy, India and America.

 

Austo-Prussian War

•     Death of Charles VI of Austria in 1740 left daughter Maria Theresa (1717-1780) on throne.

•     Pragmatic Sanction: treaties with European powers prevent disputed inheritance.

•     Maria Theresa’s succession unchallenged within, but army shattered, demoralized and in need of reform.

 

Austro-Prussian War

•     Austrian Treasury empty.

•     As easy target for Prussia, a small state of disjointed territory and 2.2 million governed by Frederick the Great (1712-1786).

•     Prussian army of 80,000 cost 5-7 million thalers from an impoverished agrarian territory.

 

Silesia

•     Frederick the Great saw opportunity to seize Silesia: 1 million, Protestant, rich, strategically located to consolidate Prussia.

•     Key point: no legitimate claim.

•     1740 invaded without warning. Counting on passivity of other states Maria Theresa yielding.

•     Austrians could not find allies and failed to drive the Prussians out.

 

Breakup of Austria

•     Capture of Silesia was a signal to the rest of Europe of Austria’s weakness.

•     Charles Albert of Bavaria claimed crowns of Bohemia and Austria – captured Bohemia.

•     Philip V of Spain claimed Tuscany and Parma for Don Philip.

•     France saw opportunity to take Austrian Netherlands and expand into Germany.

 

Survival of Austria

•     Maria Theresa, as Queen of Hungary, appealed to her subjects for military support.

•     She made peace with Prussia to concentrate on Bavaria, France and Spain.

•     With assistance from Great Britain, she recovered her position.

•     Prussia declared war again in 1744, invaded Bohemia and Saxony, then signed peace again, keeping Silesia.

•     Charles Albert of Bavaria died and his heir Maximillian Joseph signed peace with Austria.

 

Great Britain and France

•     France defeated British in Austrian Netherlands, occupying the whole country.

•     British had to retreat to fight invasion of Stuarts from Scotland.

•     In Canada, Great Britain took Cape Breton and fortress of Louisburg.

•     In India, French took British town of Madras

 

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748

•          Prussia kept Silesia

•          Don Philip of Spain gained Parma

•          King of Sardinia made gains in Lombardy

•          Austrian and British successions recognized.

 

•          Significance:

–        Secured Maria Theresa

–        Elevated Prussia to Great Power status

–        Distrust of Frederick the Great

–        Austria and other powers want revenge.

 

Diplomatic Revolution

•     Shift in alliance system.

•     Prussia and Austria remained enemies, as did Great Britain and France.

•     Rise of Prussia and Russia made the traditional enmity of France and Austria less important.

•     Great Britain signed alliance with Russia to defend Hanover against Prussia 1755.

•     Prussia sought a treaty with Great Britain not to attack each other in Germany.

•     France and Austria signed alliance in 1756.

•     Russia allied with Austria and France.

 

Seven Years War

•     Surrounded, Frederick the Great struck first invading Saxony in 1756.

•     Prussia and Austria invaded each other’s territory but failed to hold their positions.

•     French defeated Anglo-Hanoverian army in 1757.

 

William Pitt (1708-78)

•     New British war minister fought war more vigorously.

•     Reinforced British army in Hanover and paid subsidies to Prussia to tie down French troops in Europe.

•     British take advantage in India and Canada.

 

The Colonial Sphere

•     India: British and French East India Companies fighting for commercial dominance and against Indian princes. British drove French entirely out of India by 1761.

•     Africa: British try to drive French out of Senegal but only capture a few fortresses.

•     America: French try to link Quebec with Louisiana. Pitt planned assaults down the St Lawrence, through Hudson Valley and through Ohio Valley.

•     British take Quebec in 1759, Montreal in 1760.

 

The Colonial Sphere

•     West Indies: British took Guadeloupe in 1759 and won important naval victories.  British took Martinique in 1762 and most of the French and Spanish colonies in the Caribbean.

•     George III (1727-1820) ascended throne in 1760 and wanted peace. Pitt resigned in protest.

 

End of the War

•     Prussia in difficulty in 1762 until Russian Empress Elizabeth died and was succeeded by the Prussophile Peter III. Peter ordered Russians to make peace.

•     Maria Theresa agreed to make peace as she could not conquer Silesia without Russian support.

 

Treaty of Paris 1763

•          France ceded Canada, Cape Breton and Midwest to Britain. Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. France ceded Louisiana to Spain.

•          Great Britain returned all conquest in West Indies except Greneda, Dominica, St Vincent and Tobago.

•          Great Britain returned the Philippines to Spain.

•          France ceded Senegal to Great Britain.

•          Great Britain restored French India.

•          Great Britain recovered Minorca; Prussia kept Silesia.

 

Consequences

•     Prussia keeps Silesia and Great Power Status.

•     French driven out of North America – no longer a threat to American colonists.

•     Great Britain dominant in India, West Indies and West Africa.

 

War of American Independence: Grievances of Colonists

•          Navigation Acts – Colonists must buy goods only from Great Britain and in British ships. Limited colonial manufactures that competed with British goods. Loosely enforced.

•          After the Seven Years War:

•         British limit the boundaries of the 13 colonies to prevent wars with First Nations.

•         Extended and enforced economic regulations.

•         Introduced new taxes.

 

Conflict

•     British short of revenue after long war. Taxpayers wanted a tax cut after 7 years of high taxes. British felt Americans should pay a small part of the cost of their own defence.

•     American colonists studied English history.  They believed Parliament had no authority to tax as they were not represented. Parliament had no sovereignty over the colonies. Experience in colonial assemblies resisting British governors.

•     British parliamentary and public opinion agreed that Parliament did have authority over colonies.

 

New Measures

•     Stamp Act after a year’s warning, still opposed by colonists. Had to be repealed.

•     Extended customs duties on colonial import. Americans boycotted.

•     Repealed all but tea: from 15-3%. Undermined colonial smugglers. Boston Tea Party.

•     Closed port of Boston, suspended Massachusetts assembly and other penalties until restitution paid.

•     All states except Georgia attend Continental Congress to coordinate anti-British measures and formulate colonial constitutional rights.

 

Impasse

•     American radicals and authoritarians in British government make compromise impossible.

•     American refuse to acknowledge British right to tax or legislate colonies.

•     George III, Cabinet, Parliament and most people support forcing Americans to submit.

•     1775 skirmishes in Massachusetts and British declare Americans rebels.

•     1776 Americans declare independence as suggestion of British radical writer Tom Paine.

 

Weakness of American Position

•     Only 1/3 of colonists support independence.

•     Colonists did not have trained regular army.

•     Colonists did not have government structure.

 

Weakness of British Position

•     War 5,000 km away correspondence took 1 mo.

•     British relied on mercenaries.

•     Fighting a European war was impossible in America. British troops won every battle, but once they left the Americans returned.

•     Americans obtained allies: Revenge for Seven Years War – France, Spain, Holland.

•     Disputes over international law of the sea led to League of Armed Neutrality.

•     French control of sea leads to defeat at Yorktown.

•     British public and Parliament tired of the war.

 

Treaty of Versailles 1783

•     Great Britain recognized independence of colonies and ceded all land between Ohio, Mississippi Rivers and Great Lakes.

•     Great Britain and France restore each other’s colonies except Tobago kept by France.

•     Great Britain ceded Florida and Minorca to Spain.

 

Consequences of Wars of Empire

•     Prussia a Great Power.

•     France losses most of its colonial empire.

•     Great Britain wins Canada, India and West Indies but loses American colonies.

•     Government finances of all states in poor condition.

•     General animosity and distrust among Great Powers.

 

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