History 240

European Political Systems during the 18^th Century

Objectives

• Compare the political systems of the major European states and identify the differences.

French Absolutism

• Strong ambitious dynasties who increased territory under their control.

• Nobility accepted authority of monarch for status and privilege over peasants.

• Monarch controlled government policy decisions.

• Centralized bureaucracy able to extract revenue.

• Deployment of large standing armies to maintain order and expand control abroad.

• Celebration of image of powerful monarch through pageantry and public display.

Weaknesses of French Absolutism

• Frequency of war, financial bankruptcy and famine demonstrated the need for reform in French social and economic structure.

• Crown’s position of authority based on its role as guarantor of order and sustaining the church and the nobility.

• Crown could not make necessary reforms without negative impact on church and nobility.

Enlightened Absolutism

• A new style of governing adopted by many European monarchs and statesmen during the late 18^th century.

• Recognition of the need for reform.

• Influenced by Enlightenment ideas, local conditions and the realities of international politics.

• The Enlightenment provided the intellectual framework: reason and natural law replaces custom as the basis for policy.

Characteristics of Enlightened Absolutism

• Religious toleration.

• Rejection of fanaticism.

• Subordination of established churches.

• Milder penal policies.

• Patronage of art, science, education.

• Sponsoring of industrial trade and agriculture.

• Concern for law, order, and public welfare.

• Limitations on censorship.

• Progress through human agency.

• Preference for integrated plans not ad hoc.

Implementation of Enlightened Absolutism

• Government for the people, not by the people.

• Monarchs required the fullest powers to do good.

• Implemented by a more highly developed bureaucracy staffed by trained bureaucrats.

Examples of Enlightened Absolutism

• Imposed reforms to benefit their subjects.

• Frederick the Great of Prussia, Leopold II of Austria, Leopold of Tuscany and Gustavus III of Sweden adopted Beccaria’s penal reforms. Banned torture and some banned capital punishment.

• Catherine the Great promoted education and publishing.

• Joseph II of Austria established a structured education system from elementary school to university and extends toleration to Protestants and Jews.

Prussia

• Centralization of power in Berlin.

• Professional bureaucracy - enlightened ideals and a distinct order to promote common welfare.

• Large standing army and state apparatus.

• Attract settlers - clearing and draining land, canals, manufacturing and religious toleration.

• Frederick turns court into a centre of learning.

• Freed serfs on royal domains.

• Curbed abuses of magistrates.

• Relaxed censorship and freedom of religion.

Austria

• A collection of kingdoms - strong local loyalties.

• Common religion but no common language.

• Maria Theresa: centralization and standing army;

– Modernized economy and control of church;

– Banned mistreatment of peasants.

• Leopold II - new law code, independent judiciary and ended trade restrictions.

• Joseph II reorganized bureaucracy increased taxation and control of Church.

• Enlightenment justifies strengthening power rather than improving lives of subjects.

Russia

• Monarchy unlimited by representative institutions.

• Assassination, not law, was the last resort.

• Society existed to serve the state.

• Catherine the Great reforms benefits the state and nobility but not the peasants.

Non-Absolutist: Dutch Republic

• Federal and highly decentralized:

– Urban, noble and other interests represented in provincial assemblies.

– States General – delegations from 7 provinces.

• Oligarchy - wealthy influential families monopolized power. Political elite open to wealthy newcomers.

• Basic rights not enjoyed elsewhere – courts protect people from arbitrary government.

• Solid banking institutions; facilitate foreign trade.

Dutch Stadholders

• Chief officials had influence but not authority: could not overcome powers of provinces.

• 18^th century – domestic politics become corrupt: nepotism, tax evasion and profit-making in office.

• Stadholders do not make necessary reforms.

• Middle-class patriot movement tried to achieve greater democracy, but crushed by Stadholder supported by Great Britain and Prussia.

Poland

• Most powerful state in Eastern Europe in 1386.

• Structural weakness:

– Geographic – country without frontiers.

– Constitutional – elective monarchy.

• Bargaining with candidates over powers of king weakened monarchy.

• Powers of Polish Diet increased; represented local interests.

• Liberum veto adopted in 1652 – all votes must be unanimous – a single vote defeats all measures of session. 1642-1763 55 sessions ended that way.

Poland

• Right of confederation – nobility could resist by force any act of government.

• Freedom of speech and from arrest without trial.

• Army limited to 12,000.

• All attempts to reform seen as absolutist.

• Nobles refuse to pay taxes or increase army.

• Political anarchy and economic stagnation.

• Constant foreign intervention and loss of territory.

• No state can afford to be so weak that it is a standing temptation to neighbours.

England

• The English political systems defined by the constitutional settlement of the Glorious Revolution 1688-89.

• Bill of Rights 1689 entrenched in law the rights of Parliament and the Protestant religious settlement.

• Government vested in the King in Parliament: monarch, House of Lords and House of Commons share power. Each had a veto over legislation and choice of ministers.

• Monarch and spouse of monarch must be Church of England Protestants.

Evolution of Great Britain

• Union of England and Scotland in 1707 creates kingdom of Great Britain. Scotland sends MPs to Westminster Parliament.

• Union of Great Britain and Ireland 1801 created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Ireland sends MPs to Westminster Parliament.

Distributions of Power

• The King had the prerogative to choose ministers to sit in Cabinet.

• Ministers must be able to gain the support of both Houses of Parliament.

• King must choose men agreeable to Parliament.

• The House of Commons must approve all measures of taxation.

Parliament

• Parliament represents the interests of the subjects of the King.

• House of Lords included all hereditary peers of the realm (duke, marquess, earl, viscount, baron) and the bishops of the Church of England.

• Some peers of ancient lineage, others appointed for political service. Eldest son inherited the title.

• House of Lords was the highest court of appeal.

House of Commons

• Members elected for country seats or borough seats.

• County seats: two for each county of England; one for each of Scotland and Ireland. Standard franchise based on property ownership.

• Borough seats designated by royal charter. Franchise according to charter varies. Some as high as several thousand, others less that a dozen. No secret ballot.

• Elections held every 7 years. Elections do not normally affect King’s choice of ministers.

House of Commons

• No formal party affiliation:

– King’s friends;

– Government officials;

– Independents;

– Followers of factions.

• Factions: groupings around men, usually in House of Lords, with many personal supporters.

• No leader could command a majority on his own. He must negotiate alliances with other leaders and win over independents. Importance of speaking ability.

Patronage

• Relationship between patron and client providing for an exchange of interest.

• Client promises support to patron in return for a parliamentary seat, promise of government office or money.

• Landed magnates: Lords with large land holdings and the most power and supporters.

• Magnates control the elections in certain constituencies.

• Power not based on merit but on trust.

• Patronage provides for social mobility.

Political Stability

• When King and Houses of Parliament support the same ministers.

• Political instability – when King’s ministers not supported by Parliament or when Parliament forces ministers on the King not to his liking.

• Change of government:

– King changes his mind;

– Change of Monarch;

– Minister’s lose support of Parliament;

– Failure of ministerial alliances.

Political Stability

• No standing army; Natural defensible boundaries.

• Powerful interests (landed and commercial) represented in local and national government.

• Rudimentary system of poor relief.

• Fair system of taxation.

• Strong financial institutions: Bank of England and National Debt = great investor confidence.

• Growing economy increased government revenue.

• Greatest degree of freedom of expression, freedom of religion, freedom from arbitrary arrest.

Conclusion

• Types of government: absolutism, enlightened absolutism, republican oligarchy, decentralized monarchy, and constitutional monarchy.

• States required strong governments to hold them together and defend them from enemies.

• Absolutism was preferred solution.

• Enlightened absolutism improved the condition of subjects but only if it strengthened the regime.

• Republican or Constitutional government only worked in consolidated, states with defensible borders and strong economies.

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