Ethnolichenology of the World
PART I: A brief look at lichens and
people
Folk taxonomy of lichens
Lichen
mythology
Uses of lichens by people
Variation within a
lichen species
Lichens as medicine
Lichens
as food
Lichens
as dye
PART II: An inventory of lichen
species that are used by people
Lichens
A-M
Lichens
N-X and unidentified lichens
Index
of lichen names
REFERENCES CITED
TABLES
Table 1: Preparation methods
of lichens used as food by people
Table 2: A summary of studies
on the nutritional composition of lichens
Table 3: A summary of lichens
being used as dyes
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PART
II: An
inventory of lichen species that are used by people
NOTE:
All lichens are listed alphabetically according to
their scientific name. If there is information about lichen uses
that is general across a genus, or if the exact species used is
unknown, this information is entered under the heading Genus spp. and
is placed before all other entries of that genus. There are some
lichens recorded in ethnographic literature of unknown genus, and these
are entered at the end of the list.
There are many synonyms in the naming of
lichens. Ethnographic literature is often very inconsistent in
the names used for various lichens. To attempt to reduce
confusion, all lichens were named according to the following works, in
order of preference:
Brodo et al. (2001): Only deals with selected North
American species
McCune (2000): Only deals with North American Usnea
species
Esslinger (1997): Only deals with North American
species
DePreist (2002): Only deals with Cladonia species
CABI Bioscience Databases (2001): All species, but
synonyms incomplete
Lichens
A-M
Lichens N-X and unidentified lichens
Index
of lichen names
A B C D E F G
H I J K L M N O P Q R
S T U V
W X Y Z Unidentified
A
Alectoria spp.
Alectoria fremontii
[syn. Bryoria fremontii]
Alectoria jubata
Alectoria nigricans
["Gray witch's hair"]
Alectoria nitidula
[syn. Bryoria nitidula]
Alectoria ochroleuca
["Green witch's hair"]
Alectoria sarmentosa
["Witch's hair"]
Anaptychia spp. ["Fringe lichens"]
Anaptychia ciliaris
[syn. Physcia ciliaris]
Arctoparmelia centrifuga
["Concentric ring lichen"; syn. Parmelia
centrifuga, Xanthoparmelia
centrifuga]
Aspicilia calcarea
[syn. Urceolaria calcarea??, Lecanora calcarea]
Aspicilia cinerea
["Cinder lichen"; syn. Urceolaria
cinerea??, Lecanora cinerea]
Aspicilia esculenta
["Manna Lichen"; syn. Lecanora
esculenta]
Aspicilia fruticulosa
Aspicilia jussufii
Aspicilia vagans
B
Bacidia spp. ["Dot
lichens"]
Borrera furfuracea
Bryocaulon divergens
["Northern fox hair"; syn. Cornicularia
divergens]
Bryoria spp. ["Bear hair",
"Witches' Hair"]
Bryoria capillaris
["Gray horsehair lichen"; syn. Alectoria
capillaris,
Alectoria setacea, Alectoria
implexa]
Bryoria fremontii
["Black tree lichen"; syn. Alectoria
fremontii;
partial syn. Alectoria jubata]
Bryoria nitidula
["Tundra horsehair lichen"; syn. Alectoria
nitidula]
Buellia subsoriroides
C
Caloplaca murorum
[syn. Caloplaca saxicola]
Caloplaca saxicola
[syn. Caloplaca murorum]
Candelariella vitellina
["Common gold speck lichen"]
Cenomyce chlorophaea
Flörke ex Sommerf [syn. Cladonia
chlorophaea
(Flörke ex Sommerf.)
Spreng.]
Cenomyce stellaris
Opiz [syn. Cladina stellaris
(Opiz) Brodo]
Cetraria aculeata
["Spiny heath lichen"; syn. Coelocaulon
aculeatum,
Cornicularia aculeata]
Cetraria crispa
[syn. Cetraria ericetorum
subsp. ericetorum, Cetraria
islandica subsp. crispa]
Cetraria cucullata
[syn. Flavocetraria cucullata]
Cetraria ericetorum
["Iceland lichen"; partial syn. Cetraria
crispa]
Cetraria fahlunensis
[syn. Melanelia commixta]
Cetraria glauca
[syn. Platismatia glauca]
Cetraria islandica
["Iceland Lichen", "Iceland Moss"]
Cetraria juniperina
[syn. Lichen juniperinus]
Cetraria nivalis
[syn. Flavocetraria nivalis]
Cetraria pinastri
[syn. Vulpicida pinastri]
Cetrariella delisei
["Snow bed Iceland lichen"; syn. Cetraria
delisei]
Chrysothrix chlorina
["Sulfur dust lichen"; syn. Lepraria
chlorina]
Cladina spp. ["Reindeer lichen";
partial syn. Cladonia spp.]
Cladina aberrans
(Abbayes) Hale & W. L. Culb. [syn. Cladina
stellaris (Opiz) Brodo]
Cladina arbuscula
["Reindeer lichen"; syn. Cladonia
arbuscula, Cladonia
sylvatica]
Cladina mitis
["Green reindeer lichen"]
Cladina rangiferina
(L.) Nyl. ["Gray reindeer lichen"; syn. Cladonia
rangiferina (L.) F. H.
Wigg., Lichen rangiferus L. (em. Ach.)]
Cladina stellaris
(Opiz) Brodo ["Star-tipped reindeer lichen"; syn.
Cenomyce stellaris Opiz,
Cladonia alpestris (L.)
Rabenh., Cladonia
stellaris (Opiz) Pouzar & Vezda; syn. with Cladina
stellaris
var. aberrans (Abbayes) Ahti
are: Cladina aberrans
(Abbayes) Hale &
W. L. Culb.,
Cladonia aberrans
(Abbayes) Stuckenb., Cladonia
alpestris
f. aberrans Abbayes]
Cladonia spp. [Pixie cup lichens]
Cladonia aberrans
(Abbayes) Stuckenb. [syn. Cladina
stellaris (Opiz)
Brodo]
Cladonia alpestris
(L.) Rabenh. [syn. Cladina stellaris
(Opiz) Brodo]
Cladonia arbuscula
[syn. Cladina arbuscula]
Cladonia chlorophaea
(Flörke ex Sommerf.) Spreng. ["Mealy
pixie-cup"; syn. Cenomyce
chlorophaea Flörke ex
Sommerf.; Cladonia
pyxidata subsp. chlorophaea
(Flörke ex Sommerf.)
Schaer.; Cladonia
pyxidata var. chlorophaea
(Flörke ex Sommerf.) Flörke]
Cladonia coccifera
(L.) Willd. [syn. Lichen cocciferus
L.; likely syn.
genera Pyxidium,
Scyphiphorus, Scyphophorus, Scyphophora]
Cladonia fimbriata
(L.) Fr. ["Trumpet lichen"; syn. Cladonia
major,
Lichen fimbriatus L.]
Cladonia gracilis
(L.) Willd. ["Smooth Cladonia"; syn. Lichen
gracilis
L.]
Cladonia miniata
G. Mey. [??syn. Cladonia sanguinea
Eschw.]
Cladonia pyxidata
(L.) Hoffm. ["Pebbled pixie-cup"; syn. Lichen
pyxidatus L.; likely
synonymous genera: Pyxidium, Scyphiphorus,
Scyphophorus, Scyphophora]
Cladonia pyxidata subsp. chlorophaea
(Flörke ex Sommerf.) Schaer
[syn. Cladonia pyxidata
var chlorophaea (Flörke ex
Sommerf.)
Flörke; Cladonia chlorophaea
(Flörke ex Sommerf.)
Spreng.]
Cladonia rangiferina
(L.) F. H. Wigg. [syn. Cladina
rangiferina (L.)
Nyl.]
Cladonia sanguinea
Eschw. [??syn. Cladonia miniata
G. Mey.]
Cladonia stellaris
(Opiz) Pouzar & Vezda [syn. Cladina
stellaris
(Opiz) Brodo]
Cladonia sylvatica
[syn. Cladina arbuscula]
Cladonia vermicularis
(Sw.) Th. Fr [??syn. Thamnolia
vermicularis (Sw.)
Schaer.]
Coelocaulon aculeatum
[syn. Cetraria aculeata]
Cornicularia divergens
[syn. Bryocaulon divergens]
D
Dactylina arctica
["Arctic finger lichen"]
Dermatocarpon miniatum
["Common stickleback", "Leather lichen"]
Dictyonema spp.
Diploschistes scruposus
["Crater lichen"; syn. Urceolaria
scruposa]
E
Evernia spp.
Evernia mesomorpha
["Boreal oak moss lichen"]
Evernia prunastri
["Oak moss lichen"]
Evernia furfuracea
[syn. Pseudevernia furfuracea]
Everniastrum cirrhata
[syn. Parmelia cirrhata]
F
Flavocetraria cucullata
["Curled snow lichen"; syn. Cetraria
cucullata]
Flavocetraria nivalis
["Crinkled snow lichen"; syn. Cetraria
nivalis]
Flavoparmelia caperata
["Common green shield lichen"; syn. Parmelia
caperata,
Pseudoparmelia caperata]
Flavopunctelia soredica
["Speckled greenshield"; syn. Parmelia
soredica, Parmelia
ulophyllodes, Parmelia manshurica, Punctelia
soredica]
G
Gyrophora cylindrica
[syn. Umbilicaria cylindrica]
Gyrophora dillenii
[syn. Umbilicaria mammulata]
Gyrophora deusta
[syn. Umbilicaria deusta]
Gyrophora esculenta
[syn. Umbilicaria esculenta]
Gyrophora muehlenbergii
[syn. Umbilicaria muehlenbergii]
Gyrophora proboscidea
[syn. Umbilicaria proboscidea]
Gyrophora velea
[syn. Umbilicaria velea]
H
Haemotomma ventosum
[syn. Ophioparma lapponica in
North America]
Heterodermia diademata
["Cupped fringe lichen"; syn. Anaptychia
diademata]
Hypogymnia physodes
["Monk's hood lichen"; syn. Parmelia
physodes]
L
Lasallia
spp. ["Toadskin lichen"]
Lasallia pustulata
[syn. Umbilicaria pustulata]
Lecanora calcarea
[syn. Aspicilia calcarea]
Lecanora cinerea
[syn. Aspicilia cinerea]
Lecanora parella
[syn. Ochrolechia parella]
Lecanora tartarea
[syn. Ochrolechia tartarea]
Lepraria chlorina
[syn. Chrysothrix chlorina]
Lepraria iolithus
["Dust lichen"]
Letharia vulpina
["Wolf lichen"; syn. Evernia vulpina]
Leptogium spp. ["Jelly skin
lichens"]
Lichen cocciferus
L. [syn. Cladonia coccifera
(L.) Willd.]
Lichen fimbriatus
L. [syn. Cladonia fimbriata
(L.) Fr.]
Lichen gracilis
L. [syn. Cladonia gracilis
(L.) Willd.]
Lichen pyxidatus
L. [syn. Cladonia pyxidata
(L.) Hoffm.]
Lichen rangiferus
L. (em. Ach.) [syn. Cladina
rangiferina (L.) Nyl.]
Lichen vermicularis
Sw. [syn. Thamnolia vermicularis
(Sw.) Schaer.]
Lobaria amplissima
(Scop.) Forssell (syn. Sticta
amplissima?? Ask
Goward, Lobaria laciniata)
Lobaria oregana
["Lettuce lichen", "Lettuce lung"; syn. Sticta oregana]
Lobaria pulmonaria
["Lungwort", "Lung lichen"; syn. Sticta
pulmonaria,
??Sticta pulmonacea,
??Lobaria pulmonacea]
Lobaria scrobiculata
["Textured lungwort"; syn. Sticta
verrucosa]
M
Melanelia acetabulum
[syn. Lichen acetabulum, "Parmelia acebatulum",
Parmelia acetabulum]
Melanelia commixta
[syn. Cetraria commixta, Cetraria fahlunensis]
Melanelia olivacea
["Spotted camouflage lichen"; syn. Parmelia
olivacea]
Melanelia stygia
["Alpine camouflage lichen"; syn. Parmelia
stygia]
N
Nephroma arcticum
["Arctic kidney lichen", "Green light"]
Nephroma parile
["Powdery kidney lichen"]
O
Ochrolechia oregonensis
["Double rim saucer lichen"]
Ochrolechia parella
[syn. Lecanora parella]
Ochrolechia tartarea
["Cudbear"; syn. Lecanora tartarea,
Lichen
tartarea]
Ophioparma lapponica
[syn. Haemotomma ventosum in
North America]
P
Parmelia spp.
Parmelia abessinica
Kremp.
Parmelia acetabulum
(Neck.) Duby [syn. Parmelia
acebatulum [sic],
Melanelia acetabulum]
Parmelia borreri
[syn. Parmelia borreria
[sic], Punctelia borreri]
Parmelia camtschadalis
(Ach.) Eschw. [syn. Parmelia
kamptschadalis
[sic], Xanthoparmelia
camtschadalis??]
Parmelia caperata
[syn. Flavoparmelia caperata]
Parmelia centrifuga
[syn. Arctoparmelia centrifuga]
Parmelia cirrhata
[syn. Everniastrum cirrhatum]
Parmelia conspersa
[syn. Xanthoparmelia conspersa]
Parmelia furfuracea
[syn. Pseudevernia furfuracea]
Parmelia hyporysalea
Parmelia kamtschadalis
[sic] [syn. Parmelia camtschadalis,
Xanthoparmelia camtschadalis??]
Parmelia olivacea
[syn. Melanelia olivacea]
Parmelia omphalodes
["Smoky crottle"]
Parmelia paraguariensis
[syn. Parmelia paraguariensi
[sic]]
Parmelia parietina
Ach.
Parmelia perforata
[syn. Parmotrema perforatum]
Parmelia perlata
[syn. Parmotrema chinense]
Parmelia physodes
[syn. Hypogymnia physodes]
Parmelia sancti-angelii
Lynge [??syn. Parmotrema
sancti-angelii]
Parmelia saxatilis
["Salted shield lichen", "Crottle"; syn. Lichen
saxatilis]
Parmelia saxicola
Parmelia stygia
[syn. Melanelia stygia]
Parmelia sulcata
["Hammered shield lichen"]
Parmelia tinctorum
[syn. Parmotrema tinctorum]
Parmotrema chinense
["Powdered ruffle lichen"; syn. Parmelia
perlata]
Parmotrema perforatum
["Perforated ruffle lichen"; syn. Parmelia
perforata]
Parmotrema
sancti-angelii (Lynge) Hale [??syn. Parmelia sancti-angelii]
Parmotrema tinctorum
[syn. Parmelia tinctorum]
Peltigera spp.
Peltigera aphthosa
["Common freckle pelt", "Pelt lichen"]
Peltigera britannica
["Flaky freckle pelt"]
Peltigera canina
["Dog lichen"]
Peltigera horizontalis
["Flat fruited pelt"]
Peltigera membranacea
["Membranous dog-lichen"]
Peltigera neopolydactyla
["Carpet pelt"]
Peltigera polydactyla
Peltigera venosa
["Fan lichen"]
Pertusaria spp. ["Wart lichens";
syn. Variolaria spp.]
Pertusaria amara
["Bitter wart lichen"; syn. ??Variolaria
faginea,
Variolaria amara,
??Pertusaria faginea]
Pertusaria communis
[syn. Pertusaria pertusa]
Pertusaria corallina
[syn. Buellia disciformis, Pertusaria areolata]
Pertusaria discoidea
[syn. Variolaria discoidea, ??Pertusaria albescens]
Pertusaria pertusa
[syn. Pertusaria communis]
Pertusaria
pseudocorallina [syn. Pertusaria microstictica]
Physcia spp. ["Rosette lichens"]
Physcia pulverulenta
[syn. Physconia distorta]
Physconia distorta
["Frost lichen"; syn. Physcia
pulverulenta,
Physconia pulverulacea,
Physconia pulverulenta]
Platismatia glauca
["Varied rag lichen", "Ragbag"; syn. Cetraria
glauca]
Pseudocyphellaria aurata
["Green specklebelly"; syn. Sticta
aurata]
Pseudocyphellaria
crocata ["Yellow specklebelly"; syn. Sticta crocata]
Pseudevernia furfuracea
["Antler lichen"; syn. Evernia
furfuracea,
Borrera furfuracea,
Parmelia furfuracea, and Lichen furfuracea]
Punctelia borreri
[syn. Lichen borreri Sm., Parmelia borreria [sic],
Parmelia borreri]
R
Ramalina spp.
Ramalina bourgeana
Ramalina calicaris
Ramalina cuspidata
[syn. Ramalina polymorpha]
Ramalina farinacea
["Dotted Ramalina"]
Ramalina fastigiata
Ramalina fraxinea
Ramalina polymorpha
[syn. Ramalina cuspidata??, Ramalina siliquosa,
Ramalina breviuscula,
Ramalina scopulorum var.
incrassata]
Ramalina scopulorum
Rhizocarpon geographicum
["Yellow map lichen"]
Roccella spp. ["Orchil lichens"]
Roccella fuciformis
["Orchil lichen"; syn. Roccella fuciformia [sic],
Lichen fuciformis]
Roccella montagnei
["Orchil lichen"]
Roccella phycopsis
["Orchil lichen"]
Roccella tinctoria
["Orchil lichen"; syn. Lichen roccella]
S
Scyphophorus cocciferus
[syn. Cladonia coccifera??]
Scyphophorus pyxidatus
[syn. Cladonia pyxidata??]
Solorina crocea
["Orange chocolate chip lichen"]
Stereocaulon himalayense
Stereocaulon paschale
["Easter lichen"]
Sticta spp. ["Moon lichens",
"Crater lichens"; partial syn. Lobaria
spp.]
Sticta amplissima
[??syn. Lobaria amplissima]
Sticta aurata
[syn. Pseudocyphellaria aurata]
Sticta crocata
[syn. Pseudocyphellaria crocata]
Sticta glomerulifera
[syn. "Sticta glomulerifera"]
Sticta pulmonaria
[syn. Lobaria pulmonaria]
Sticta pulmonacea
[??syn. Lobaria pulmonaria]
T
Teloschistes flavicans
["Powdered orange bush lichen"]
Teloschistes parietinus
[syn. Xanthoria parietina]
Teloschistes
vermicularis
Thamnolia vermicularis
(Sw.) Schaer. ["Whiteworm lichen"; syn.
??Cladonia vermicularis
(Sw.) Th. Fr.; Lichen vermicularis Sw]
U
Umbilicaria spp. ["Rock tripes"]
Umbilicaria cylindrica
["Fringed rock tripe"; syn. Gyrophora
cylindrica]
Umbilicaria deusta
["Peppered rock tripe"; syn. Gyrophora
deusta,
Gyrophora flocculosa]
Umbilicaria esculenta
[syn. Gyrophora esculenta]
Umbilicaria mammulata
["Smooth rock tripe"; syn. Gyrophora
dillenii]
Umbilicaria
muehlenbergii ["Plated rock tripe"; syn. Gyrophora
muehlenbergii]
Umbilicaria proboscidea
["Netted rock tripe"; syn. Gyrophora
proboscidea]
Umbilicaria pustulata
[syn. Lasallia pustulata]
Umbilicaria vellea
["Frosted rock tripe"; syn. Gyrophora
velea]
Urceolaria calcarea
[??syn. Aspicilia calcarea]
Urceolaria cinerea
[??syn. Aspicilia cinerea]
Urceolaria scruposa
[syn. Diploschistes scruposus]
Usnea spp.
Usnea barbata
Usnea californica
[partial syn. Usnea ceratina]
Usnea ceratina
["Warty beard lichen"; partial syn. Usnea
californica]
Usnea dasypoga
[syn. Usnea filipendula]
Usnea densirostra
[previously misidentified as Usnea
hieronymi]
Usnea diffracta
Usnea filipendula
["Fishbone beard lichen"; syn. Usnea
dasypoga, has
been misidentified in
North America as Usnea plicata]
Usnea florida
Usnea hieronymi
Usnea hirta
["Bristly beard lichen"; syn. Usnea
variolosa]
Usnea lacunosa
Usnea longissima
["Methuselah's beard lichen"]
Usnea plicata
Usnea scabrata
[may be syn. to Usnea barbata
in North America]
V
Variolaria spp. [syn. Pertusaria spp.]
Variolaria discoidea
[syn. Pertusaria discoidea]
Variolaria faginea
[??syn. Pertusaria amara]
Variolaria orcina
[??syn. Pertusaria spp.]
Vulpicida canadensis
["Brown-eyed sunshine lichen"; partial syn.
Cetraria juniperina]
Vulpicida pinastri
["Powdered sunshine lichen"; syn. Cetraria
pinastri,
Cetraria caperata]
X
Xanthoparmelia
camtschadalis (Ach.) Hale ["Rock shield lichen";
??syn.
Parmelia
camtschadalis]
Xanthoparmelia
chlorochroa ["Tumbleweed shield lichen"; syn. Parmelia
chlorochroa]
Xanthoparmelia conspersa
["Peppered rock shield"; syn. Parmelia
conspersa]
Xanthoria candelaria
["Shrubby sunburst lichen"]
Xanthoria parientina
["Maritime sunburst lichen", "Wall lichen"; syn.
Teloschistes parientinus,
Physcia parientina, Lichen parietinus]
Unidentified
Unidentified lichens, black and yellow
Unidentified lichen, earth flower
Unidentified lichens, general lichens in
Europe
Unidentified lichens, growing on white pine
Unidentified lichen, New Zealand
Unidentified lichens, orange and yellow
crustose
Unidentified lichen, pyrenocarpous
Unidentified lichens, southern Mexico
Unidentified lichen, "white moss"
Unidentified lichen, yellow saxicolous
Lichens
A-M
Lichens N-X and unidentified lichens
References
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