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Lacandón morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words: verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs and their morphosyntactic distribution. Like other Mayan languages, Lacandón is mildly agglutinative, with person, number, transitivity, causation, reflexivity, and other word building elements affixed to the verb root. The majority of the inflectional and derivational affixes are suffixes. Tense, aspect, and mood also occur as preverbal elements. Roots, which carry the core meaning of words, are classified, mostly on distributional grounds; partly on semantics, as: (T) transitive, (I) intransitive, (Af) affective, (P) positional, (N) nominal, (A) adjectival, (Pt) particle, (E) exclamatory, (O) onomatopoetic, and (X) unclassified. Some roots are polyvalent, belonging to more than one class (See Hofling 2000:55). Stem-building uses roots to create new words through affixation. Roots and derived stems take inflection to indicate person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and transitivity.
The canonical root shape is CVC. Suffixes are typically -V(V)C, as well as -C, -CVC, and -VCVC. Prefixes are CV- or C-. CVC suffixes, may reflect earlier compounding (See Bruce 1968: 3.4.3.3. Pp. 72-4). The common stem formatives are C suffixes: -l, -s, -t. Some C prefixes are reduced forms of particles, such as t- < ti7 "general referent" (Bruce, 1968:63). Reduplication patterns are CVC- and CV-. Clitics, such as the Set A person markers, are semi-independent morphemes which carry grammatical information.
The person markers in Table 1 are divided into two sets, consisting of four proclitic pronouns classified as Set A, and six pronominal suffixes classified as Set B. Epenthetic glides are written in parentheses. When Set A person markers precede a root that has an initial soft glottal onset, the onset is replaced with a glide. In Lacandón underlying forms, these glides are cited as w- or y- to avoid confusion with other roots that begin with w or y (such as wits. hill). Third-person forms regularly occur with only the glide present, as in the following example: yakaluum /7u y-aka=lu7um/. 3SG.A 3SG.A-run=earth. automobile. N represents a nasal which undergoes assimilation or dissimilation in certain morphophonemic contexts. See the phonology section.
| Lacandón Person Markers | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Set A | Set B | |||||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||
| 1 | iN(w) | dual | (7äh)k | -en | dual | -oon |
| incl | (7äh)k- ... -eex | incl | -ooneex | |||
| excl | -iN(w-)...-o7 | excl | -eno7 | |||
| 2 | a(w-) | a(w-)... -eex | -ech | -eex | ||
| 3 | u(y-) | u(y-) ...-o7 | -i7, zero | -iho7, zero | ||
Footnote: 7u w-ich, not 7u y-ich. 3SG.A - See Bruce (1968:58).
A set of independent pronouns reinforce the personal reference marked by the person proclitics and suffixes. These are shown in Table 2
| Lacandón Independent Pronouns | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | ||
| dual | to7on | ||
| 1 incl. | toneesh | ||
| 1 | ten | 1 excl | teno7 |
| 2 | tech | 2 | te7esh |
| 3 | lati7 (la7 'that') | 3 | lati7o7 |
Verb agreement is marked by the Set A (ergative) person proclitics or the Set B (absolutive) person suffix pronouns. Lacandón displays a split-ergative person-marking system, that is, it displays both nominative accusative and ergative-absolutive systems. Transitive forms indicate agents with set A pronouns and objects with set B pronouns. In the intransitive incompletive, the system is nominative accusative, where the nominative case is marked by set A person prefixes. In the intransitive completive and dependent, the system is ergative-absolutive, where the absolute case is marked by set B person suffixes. (For a discussion of the split-ergative system in Mayan languages, see Bricker, 1981a; Ayres, 1982)
Verbs are typically formed from transitive and intransitive roots or may be derived from other root classes.
Tense refers to the time of an event, for example, whether it took place in the past or will take place in the future. Aspect refers to the time phases of an event, for example, whether it is underway or completed. Mood refers to the psychological reality of an event, for example, whether it is an established fact, or a possibility (depending on certain factors), or an imperative. Transitivity refers mainly to verbs and their ability to take subjects, and objects. Transitive verbs have a subject and an object. Intransitive verbs have only a subject.
In Lacandón a set of morphemes (TAMs) precede the verb to indicate tense, aspect, and mode (Hofling 2000:44). A set of suffixes also encode these categories and indicate transitivity as well. They are referred to as status suffixes (see Hofling 1998:214; 2000:44). Kauffman (1990) introduced this terminology as a special feature of Mayan morphosyntax. Together, these morphemes create a categorical frame around the verb.
The following table shows some of the TAM markers that occur with each of the four status categories with transitive and intransitive verbs. Adverbs that serve as TAM markers are discussed in Adverb Morphology.
| Status Markers | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aspect | Transitive Status | Aspect | Intransitive Status | |
| Incompletive | k- IRR t- |
-ik | -Vl | |
| Completive | t- COM present perfect |
-ah -m-ah |
h- ~ 0- | -ah, -0 -a7an |
| Dependent | ka7 DEP | (-V7 ?) -eh, -0 | -Vk | |
| Imperative | -eh | -en |
tan in likil. I am getting up.
tan in lik-Vl
DUR 1SG.A-rise-IIS
bik in metik. By what means do I do it?
bik k-in men-t-ik.
how IRR-1SG.A do-TRN-ITS
ku chupu. supple, It swells.
k-u chup-Vl
IRR-3SG.A swell-IIS
ku ts'oko kin bin tin chata. When I finish, I'm going to lie down. Tortillas_CNK
k-u ts'ok-Vl k-in bin t-in chal-tal
IRR-3SG.A finish-IIS IRR-1SG.A go DUR-1SG.A lie-INCH
pachi tan u buhik u che7. Después, está rajando leña. Later, he is chopping wood.
pach-il tan u buk-ik u che7
back-ADJ.DER DUR 3SG.A chop-ITS 3SG.A wood \Jag_Rab_SK_01
tubuhah. He split it.
t-u-buh-ah
COM-3SG.A-split-CTS
bin in ka buhur tu yarah chEk baron. I'm going to explode said the Jaguar. Jag_Rab_Sk_01
bin in kah buh-Vl t-u yar-ah chEk balon
go 1SG.A begin explode-IIS COM-3SG.A say-CTS red jaguar
ta wirah u muxu matan che7 yumeh.
You saw it the ground (copal) offering to the tree, oh Lord. Rit_Tree-AM_02
t-a w-il-ah u mux-Vl matan che7 yum-eh
COM-2SG.A 2SG.A-see-CTS 3SG.A mince-ADJ.DER offering tree lord-TOP
7eeri. It burned.
7el-ih
burn-3SG.B
taren. I came.
tal-en
come-1SG.B
hari ten in sipi tu taren. It is only my fault where I came
hali7 ten in sip-i tu tar-en
only 1SG.IPRO 1SG.A sin-NOM where come-1SG.B
luki. He left.
luk-ih
leave-3SG.A
k'apEkma. has inserted.
k'Ep-Vk-m-ah
insert-?-perfect-CTS
ka7 kuruken. That I (might) sit.
ka7 kul-Vk-en
that sit-DIS-1SG.A
in kepeh wah. to hang my tortillas. \Tortillas_CNK
in kep-eh wah
1SG.A hang up-DTS tortilla
ka lik'i koten. Se levanta otra vez, venˇ It rises again, come!
ka7ah lik'-Vl ko7ot-en
again rise-IIS come-IMPIS \Bal_Rit_AM_02
peekseh ten chEk xokeh be. Muévala para mi sirena roja.ˇMove it for me, red mermaid!
peek-s-eh ten chEk xok-eh beh
move-CAUS-IMPTS 1SGIPRO red mermaid-EUPH EUPH \Bal_Rit_AM_02
Verb roots are divided into two root classes: transitive, intransitive. Transitive roots form verbs that have both a subject and an object. Intransitive roots form verbs that have subjects only.
The transitive-intransitive distinction in Lacandón is based on the status suffixes taken by a stem form. Affixation can create transitive stems from intransitive roots; Transitive roots and stems can be detransitivized. Transitive and intransitive stems may also be formed from roots that belong to the other classes.
Transitive roots take inflectional affixation directly, without derivational affixes.
Voice, a category closely tied to transitivity, is concerned with the role of the grammatical subject of the verb. This role is termed active if the subject is the actor, or agent.
Lacandón active transitive verbs indicate subject/agents with set A pronouns and objects/goals with Set B pronouns. They occur with transitive status suffixes.
in bEhik. I fasten it.
in bEhik u pateh kax. I fasten chicken coops. \Tortillas_CNK
in bEh-ik u paten kax
1SG.A fasten-ITS 3SG.A coop chicken
in k'erik in kakaw. estoy tostando mi cacao. I am toasting my cocoa. \Cacao_JK_01
in k'el-ik in kakaw.
1SG.A toast-ITS 1SG.A cocoa
(1) Reflexive verbs have possessed forms of the reflexive suffix -bah as their direct object,
u yilah ubah. He saw himself.
u y-il-ah u-bah
3SG.A 3SG.A-see-CTS 3SG.A-REFL
(2) The reflexive suffix -bEh, affixes to the verb.
huts(-ik)-bEh. move. "change houses". (Bruce 1979:162)
ka sutbeh ten. ...cuando yo regresé. ...when I return. \Int_Hist_AM_01
kah sut-beh ten
when return-REFL 1SGIPRO
(3) Also: possessed noun + u-bEh
u ba7al u-bEh. baggage
3SG.A thing 3SG.A-REFL
Active intransitive verbs indicate subjects with Set A pronouns in the incompletive, and Set B pronouns in the completive and dependent. They occur with intransitive status suffixes.
Incompletive
tu hopol. It's burning
t-u hop-Vl
DUR-3SG.A burn-IIS
tu yokol. He steals.
t-u y-ok-Vl
DUR-3SG.A 3SG.A-steal-IIS
tu yok'ol. He crys. He is crying.
t-u y-ok'-Vl
DUR-3SG.A 3SG.A-cry-IIS
Completive
7eeri. It's burnt.
7el-ih
burn-3SG.B
The subject in a passive event is the semantic object. These are indicated with Set A pronouns in the Imperfective; Set B pronouns in the completive and dependent.
Lacandón makes use of two passive stem suffixes, -b and -a7. Their distribution is not clear yet. In Itza, the canonical passive is formed with a suffix -b (Hofling 2000:57). The following Lácandon examples show passive stems with -b that are based on a transitive roots.
k'axbe. changed
k'ax-b-el
change-PASS-IIS
ts'aba k'uxu7. Achiote is given. Nar_Forest_Ck
ts'ah-b-VL k'uxu7
give-PASS-IIS achiote
In Yucatec, and, in some cases Lácandon, the passive voice of root transitives is formed by lengthening the root vowel and the insertion of an intervocalic glottal stop. The following Lácandon example shows this pattern.
k'ax. tie up
k'a7ax. closed tightly
Yucatec derived transitive stems form passives with suffixes: -a7al (imperfective), -a7ab' (perfective), -a7ak (subjunctive) (Bricker 1998:335). Lacandón forms with -a7 (~-ah ~ -a) correspond to the Yucatec passive suffixes. The following examples show that this suffix forms passive stems with root transitives.
laap'ah. worn out
lap'-a7
wear out-PASS
tu k u bEh-a7 ba7. hammer.
where IRR 3SG.A split-PASS thing (<bEh T. split (b'ah. T. nail. fuck. Bricker 1998:24))
tu k u hEx-ah k'ak'. fire drill
where IRR 3SG.A twist-PASS fire (<hEx T. twist (hax. T. stretch. Bricker 1998:104)
tu k u kuch-a hara. quiver (for arrows) (<kuch T. carry (kuch. T. carry. Bricker 1998:135))
where IRR 3SG.A carry-PASS arrow
The Lacandon antipassive is marked with the suffix -n in the completive, dependent and imperative, -0 in the incompletive. The subject of an antipassive event is a controller, but an object or goal is not overtly marked or is incorporated into the verb. They occur with intransitive status suffixes. The subject is indicated with set A pronouns in the Imperfective status forms, with set B pronouns in the perfective and dependent status forms
ki7 k'aynen. I sang well. Nar_Forest_CK
ki7 k'ay-n-ah-en
well sing-AP-CIS-1SG.B
mE7 peknah. He didn't move. Int_Hist_AM_01
ma7 pek-n-ah
not move-AP-CIS
wayak'nah ma7 7ahech kuxEn. He dreamed you didn't wake up. Int_Hist_AM_01
wayak'-n-ah ma7 7ah-ech kux-an
dream-AP-CIS not wake up-2SG.B alive-PART
buhnah chocheh. se exploto tripa. intestines exploded. \Jag_Rab_SK_01
buh-n-ah chocheh
split-AP-CIS guts
Antipassive in -Vl
7ayin hach tuhey ne tsiki.
The crocodile is truly very angry. Dog_Croc_Kin
7ayin hach tuhahil ne tsik-il
crocodile very ? very fierce-AP
Antipassive in -ah (-Vl stems that have been transitivized)
The Lacandón mediopassive is marked with ?????
The agentless passive takes the suffixes -p-ah in all status forms.
k'axpahi changed
k'ax-p-ah-ih
change-PASS-DTR-3SG.A
ku lEh tsirpah. It all got broken. Tortillas_CNK
k-u lah tsil-p-ah
IRR-3SG.A completely tear-PASS-DTR
The celeritive intransitive is formed with -k'-ah. Celeritive verbs signal sudden or unexpected events without indicating an outside agent. Possible example:
buk'arah ka chEk xokeh be. The mermaid got flooded(in thewater)again.\Bal_Rit_AM_04
bul-k'-ah ka7ah chEk xok-eh beh
fill/flood-CELER-DTR again red mermaid-EUPH EUPH
Positional roots form a smaller, semantic class that refers to physical states or positions.They form intransitive stems with the suffixes -tal (imperfective) and -l (perfective and dependent).
chaltal. lie down
CHECK ALL THESE--CONFUSION OVER INCH VS POSIT GLOSS
ku ts'oko kin bin tin chata. When I finish, I'm going to lie down. Tortillas_CNK
k-u ts'ok-Vl k-in bin t-in chal-tal
IRR-3SG.A finish-IIS IRR-1SG.A go DUR-1SG.A lie-INCH
niktal. pile
nik-tal
scatter-INCH
kutar. sit down
kul-tal
sit-INCH
yaha7nah kutali sos. Yaha7nah was sitting beside Sos.\Con_CK_KyM_06
yaha7nah kul-tal-ih sos
Yaha7nah sit-INCH-3SG.B Sos
kuxtal. live
kux-tal
live-INCH
Perfective
hoch'i. worn out (face)
hoch'-l-ah-ih
droop-POSIT-CIS-3SG.B
-Vkbal positional adjective
chalakbal. lie down
chal-akbal
lie-POSIT.ADJ
charakben tin wene. I am lying down to sleep. song_CK.txt
Inchoative verbs are based on adjective and noun roots. They take -tal in the incompletive, -ah in the completive and -ak in the dependent. There is no imperative.
ne xanta u ts'oko in pEk'Extik. Tarda mucho que termino a tortear. It takes a long time, me making tortillas.\Tortillas_CNK
ne xan-tal u ts'o7ok-ol in pEk'Ech-t-ik
very late-INCH 3SG.A finish-IIS 1SG.A tortilla-make-TRN-ITS
Affective roots, and adjectival roots and stems form intransitive affective verb stems with the suffixes -bal and -ankil. Robert Laughlin's (1975:26) semantic characterization: "They have dash." is often cited.
-bal
-ankil
k'ayankEn. ?
sing-AFV
Intransitive roots take -s CAUS or -t TRAN to form transitive stems.
men. I. do
u metik. I do it.
u men-t-ik
3SG.A do-TRN-ITS
tu ku huxtah nok'. (a) brush.
tu k-u hux-t-a7 nok'
where IRR-3SG.A brush-TRN-PASS clothes
em. I. descend
u yemsik. He lowers something
u y-em-s-ik
3SG.A 3SG.A descend-CAUS-ITS
u hopsik. He sets fire to it.
u hop-s-ik
3SG.A burn-CAUS-ITS
u katik. He runs after it.
u ka7-t-ik
3SG.A run-TRN-ITS
Adjective roots and Positional roots take -kin ~ -kun CAUSE + -t to form transitive verb stems.
mex tu la=charkintah tu woro. He laid down all his whiskers. Jag_Rab_Kin_02
mex t-u lah=chal-kin-t-ah t-u wol-Vl
whiskers COM-3SG.A completely=lie.down-CAUS-TRN-CTS at-3SG.A heart-NOM
ch'uykintik. He hung it.
ch'uy-kin-t-ik
hang-CAUS-TRN-ITS
kuketik. He sat something down.
kul-kin-t-ik
sit-CAUS-TRN-ITS
Nominal and Adjectival roots take -t, and -int to form transitive verb stems.
-t
bo7otah. pay something
bo7ol-t-ah
payment-TRN-CTS
chantik. look at
chan-t-ik
spectacle-TRN-ITS
chehtik. laugh at
che7eh-t-ik
laughter-TRN-ITS
hantik. eat it
han-t-ik
food,eat-TRN-ITS
hats'tik. wet it
hats'-t-ik
wet-TRN-ITS
-int ~ -in
k'ichintik. warm something
k'ich-int-ik
warm-TRN-ITS
lak'in. marry
lak'-in
spouse, companion-TRN
Transitive verbs derived from (nominal, adjectival, and intransitive) stems ending in -Vl
kaplik. mount it
kap-l-ik
mount-ADJ.DER-ITS
oklik. steal
ol-Vl-ik
steal-IIS-ITS
tuklik. think about, worry about
tuk-ul-ik
think-NOM.DER-ITS
CV- reduplication indicates moderate intensity. Ex.
CVC- reduplication indicates repetitive activity. Ex.
An incorporated verb-noun construction is intransitive, but may be transitivized with -t TRN.
chalha7 half-wash
chal=ha7
rinse=water
in chalha7tik. I half wash it.
in chal=ha7-t-ik
1SG.A rinse=water-TRN-ITS
hoyat. sprinkling
hoy=ha7-t
disperse=water-TRN
muutsichtik. close eyes at, blink
muuts=ich-t-ik
close=eye-TRN-ITS
Verb=Verb compound
mEx=hats'. pound something
hit=hit
Nouns form a distinct word class or root nouns. Root nouns are objects, states, facts, and processes. Nouns are derived from other nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Nouns also result from compounding word classes. Nouns are inflected for number and person. Most nouns may be possessed and pluralized. They can be pluralized by adding the suffixes -o7 and -al. There are two different kinds of person marking: pronominal clitics, indicating possession, and pronominal suffixes, indicating statue expressions, e.g., winik-en "I am a man" (see associative possession below).
There are different types of possessive expressions: personal possession, associative possession, and inalienable possession. Possession is marked by Set A person pronouns, for example, iN pek=, a pek=, u pek= "my, your, his/her dog", iNw aak=, aw aak=, u yaak= Amy, your, his/her tongue
Possession is also marked by inflectional suffixes (-il, -el, -al, -Vl, or zero)
-el = inalienable possession, refers to body parts, E.g., im bak=-el "my bone"
-il = associative possession, the object is associated, but no owned, by the possessor, e.g., u leki
k=uh "the plate of the god(s); god pot"
-al = personal ownership
-Vl = personal ownership
zero = e.g., koh k=ek=en "boar=tusks"
Some nouns take 7äh, 7äx ~ x- , which mark masculine and feminine respectively. 7äh is also used with some species of flora and fauna, certain deities, and proper names, e.g.,7äh Juan "John" x- also prefixes to
Because Lacandón (and other Yucatecan languages) do not employ copulas, they may refer to either an object or a state, e.g., winik can mean "man" or "I am a man." (see stative verbs.)
Nouns are typically based on noun roots. They may also be derived from other root classes with affixation.
In Lacandón and Mayan in general, there are noun classes based on the distribution of noun roots with possessive inflectional suffixes. (Hofling 2000:90). Examples in Lacandón follow:
bu7ul-il wah. bean tamale
ch'ala7t-il. rib
habEn-il. insides, entrails
hita7an u nahi. roof of a house
hit-a7an u nah-il
weave-PART 3SG.A house-POSS
huni. single (one)
hun-in
one-POSS
kabi. honey
kab-il
honey-POSS
kah-il. town
k'ak'-il. fire
lak-il. pot
nuk-ul. means, manner
han-an. food
bakel. bones
bak-el
bone-POSS
chochel. guts, tripa
choch-el
guts-POSS
Ex.
Ex.
Ex.
-tak. PL
ba7axtak. things
ba7ax-tak
thing-PL
Numeral classifiers are noun roots which follow number words to specify the category of the item that is counted, forming adjective-noun compounds The most common are: =p'eel. inanimate, and =tuul animate
hayil=hun. bag
hay-il=hun
thin-NOM=paper, page, bark, cloth
hun=p'el. one inanimate thing
hun=tul. one animate thing
ka7=tl-o7. two animate beings
ka7=tsit. two long things
ka7=wEts. two times
ka=bu=k'eb. ten.
ka7=buh=hand
two=separate=hand
Active verbal noun roots can form active verbal nouns and active intransitive verbs.
CVCVC
k'eban. avn. actv. sin
CVVC
looch'. avn. cradling in arms
looch'. actv. cradle in arms
Nouns can be derived from other root and stems types, often using the same suffixes that occur with noun roots, as illustrated above. Such suffixes have may have multiple-function glosses in the Lacandón lexicon: eg. -Vl. POSSessive, NOMinal.
| Active Verbal Nouns derived with -VC, -il, 0 | ||
|---|---|---|
| Root | Active Verbal Noun | TRN Stem |
| tuk X. | tuk -ul thought. thinking | tuk-l-ik |
| uk' I.T. | uk' -ul drink. drinking | uk' -ul-t-ik |
| 7uchk X. | 7uchki bathe 7uchk-il bath/bathe |
|
| kah I. P. N. | kahal village "residing place" kahan residing (?-a7an) |
|
| Note: kah. reside, seems to be a good example of a root that has the potential to be nominal and verbal. | ||
| hum N. | hum. make noise | |
| huy N. | huy. stirring | |
| muk I. T. | muk. secret, grave | Active Verbal Nouns derived with -s-ah (Hof. avn3) |
| Root | Active Verbal Noun | TRN stem |
| kim I. | kim. dead | kin-s-ah die-CAUS-DTR |
Relational nouns are morphologically derived (possessed nominals). They function like prepositions or adverbs or conjunctions.
ok'ol. why, what for, because
ok'-Vl
over-NOM.DER
Abstract nouns derived w/ -il from adjectival, participial, nominal, adverbial, particle stems
akan tani a watoch. front of (a) house
akan tan-il a w-atoch
entrance front-ABST 2SG.A 2SG.A-house
chuni. stingy
chun-il
stingy-ABST
7ichil. interior
7ich-il
in-ABST
komil. shortness
u komi nok'. short pants
u koom-il nok'
3SG.A short-NOM pants/clothes
nok'i. bag, sack
nok'-il
cloth-NOM
u nok'i sEk ch'uhuk. sugar sack
Gerunds with -il based on avn stems or antipassive stems
Root
miis miis-il at the sweeping of (Hofling ex.)
Root: kim. I. dead
u-kim-en-il his (own) corpse (Hofling Ex.)
3SG.A-die-NOM-POS
Root: 7ak
Ah-7ak-ach horsefly
MASC- -NOM
Root: tun. N. stone
tun-ich stone
stone-NOM
Root: mux. T
muxul. pieces
mince
7ek' A. black
7ek'-e(l) spot
lom. T. puncture
lom-ol spear
Source
ix-ch'up. female
u-ch'up-al female of group
3SG.A-female-NOM
kah. town
kah-al
town, hometown (?)
ch'uhuk. sugar
ch'uh-Vk
sweet-NOM
lama7. spear
lam-a7
penetrate-NOM
ok-om house corner post
bal-um jaguar
ay-im crocodile
kis-in devil
k'ek'-en pig
chech-en
pix-an spirit
tsim-in horse
kam-ut sweet potato
kux-um fungus
ROOT
muk. T. muk-lan grave. burial.
kelem. X. kelem-bal shoulder
k'uch I. y-Eh-k'uch. the first (IntCul_AM_02)
N + N
bu7ul=wah. bean tamale
chay=che7. wedge
shard=wood
A + N
chan=7och. little possum
7ox=yelal. three layers
hEn=ka7il. cleared field
N + A
lak=ko. saucer
lak=ko7oh
plate=expensive
V + N
k'up=ba. knife
k'up=ba7al
cut thing
lam=kay. harpoon
pierce=fish
Adjectives are differentiated from verbs and nouns by their inability to be inflected for aspect or possession. They can be derived to form statue verbs in equational clauses, with the of Set B pronominal suffixes, e.g.,wih -en "I am hungry", 7ah-en "I'm awake." The criterion used to distinguish adjectives is their ability to modify to nouns.
Like other word classes discussed, adjectives can belong to a root class, e.g., chich "hard", k'a7 "strong (flavor)", k'alax "dirty", sak "white", wih "hungry", baach "skinny", or they may be derived, from both transitive and intransitive verbs, affect verbs, celebrative verbs, positional verbs, nouns, and other adjectives (Hofling2000:372).
Adjectives may be pluralized by the addition of -tak; whereas some others are inherently plural, e.g., mehen "small things" (chan "little thing"), and nuuk "big things" (nohoch "big, great").
yan, the existential adjective stem and its negative counterpart mana7 form stative predicates.
yan u ch'om. She has to cover it.
be 3SG.A cover
mana7 muk. weak person
ma7-a7an muk
not-PART strength
Adjective roots may occur with set B person markers.
mehenih. children
mehen-ih
little-3SG.B
-Vch
mechech che7. wedge
mech-Vch=che7
curled-ADJ =wood
nukuch. grand
nuk-Vch
big-ADJ
-Vch honorific<adjective roots
-Vk <transitive or positional roots
kapaknak. crooked
kap-Vk-nak
mount-ADJ -PART
nanayak. numb
CV-nay-ak
redup-dream-ADJ
-Vl <a number of different root classes
7ek'el. spotted
7ek'-Vl
black-ADJ
7ele. burnt (color)
7el-Vl
burn-ADJ
kabal. below
kab-Vl
land-ADJ
ka7anal. high
ka7an-al
sky-ADJ
muxul. ground
mux-Vl
mince-ADJ
muxu matan. ground offering. Rit_Tree_AM_02
-Vm
-Vn
-Vt
habat hElEl. quiver (arrow)
hab-Vt hElEl
separate-ADJ.DER arrow
-V7
ts'ok-il. finished
pachi ts'oki in chalha7tik. Later, I finished half-washing it. Tortillas_CNK
pach-il ts'ok-il in chal=ha7-t-ik
later-ADJ.DER finish-ADJ.DER 1SG.A rinse=water-TRN-ITS
huntri cha mehen. some little children
hun=tul-il chan mehen
one=animate-ADJ little child
u pachi ku k'aba7. nickname
u pach-il k-u k'aba7
3SG.A back-ADJ 3SG.A name
kati che7. coffin
kat-il che7
lie across-ADJ wood
chEkwil. fever
chEk-w-il
cook-ADJ-NOM
yokben a watoch. house post
y-ok-ben a w-atoch
3SG.A-point-stative 2SG.A 2SG.A house
u yokmena. housepost
u y-ok-men=nah
3SG.A 3SG.A-point-stative=house
kim I. die kim-en dead
die-stative
bEk'mEn. encircle(d)
bEk'-mEn
animal-stative
wol A. round wol-is round
round-ADJ
Reduplication in these forms augments the source meaning. They are derived from a number of different root types.
CV- a lot
yeyek'e7. spotted (of garments; animals)
CV-yek'-Vl
a lot-black-ADJ.DER
chichin bek. almost
CV-chin bek
a lot-little like so
CVC- intensity che7che7. raw
CVC-chE7
intense-crude
choki sEkpare. brilliant
chok-il sEk=pal-e7
hot-ADJ.DER white=pale-color
7ek'len kan. spotted snake
7ek'-Vl-en kan
black-ADJ.DER-color snake
k'ohe7. toasted brown
k'oh-e7
toasted-color
Adverbs are defined by their function as modifiers and are not considered to be one of the root classes.
Adverbial modifiers typically occur in final position but may occur initially in focus constructions or initially and finally in framing constructions. Adverbial modifiers come from a number of sources. particle roots, such as locative, temporal and manner particles provide most adverbial modifiers. Adverbs may also be derived from adjectival and nominal roots.
They typically occur clause finally, but may precede the verb.
The following is a list of temporal adverbs in Lacandón. They may serve as TAM markers, preceding the verb. List is from Hofling 2000:158-9. Lacandón in bold.
General
b'a-(je7-)la7 now
TEMP-OST-PROX
hats'=ka7 early
whip=earth
ka7-ka7at later
REDUP-later
kab'eh day after tomorrow
ka7. ka7ti7 when (past or future)
ka7ah. again <kah. begin
post pronominal adverb
kil when, whenever
kuchih formerly (counterfactual)
kachik before
la7aylik ~ la7ayli7 still
ma7=ta7ax never
NEG=ever?
ma7=te7 not yet
mix=b'i=k'in never, at no time
NEG=INTER=time
mix toh not yet
ox-ej in three days
sam-al tomorrow
while-NOM/ADV
samal=kab'eh day after tomorrow, some day
tomorrow=day.after
san-samal everyday
REDUP-tomorrow
tantoh just, immediate past, IMM
toh still
tun then
yah already
yaab' pak many times, frequently
many time
pachil. later
pachi ts'oki in chalha7tik. Later, I finished half-washing it. Tortillas_CNK
pach-il ts'ok-il in chal=ha7-t-ik
back-ADJ.DER finish-ADJ.DER 1SG.A rinse=water-TRN-ITS
Past Time (Hofling 2000:159)
Adverbials can indicate past time with -ih 3SG.B, historically a perfective suffix.
uch-ih long ago
sam-ih a little while ago
ba7ax what?
cham=bel slowly
little=go
bex like so
bex yan a ki7 7utskintik chichen. Así tienes bien arreglado poco. You have to fix them well, a little, like so. \Con_CK_KyN_06 bex yan a ki7 7uts-kin-t-ik chichin like so be good good-CAUSE-TRN-ITS little
b'a7ak(-an) counter-expectative. COUNTER
b'in reportative. REPORT
chak perhaps
chan= against speaker's wishes (rare)
hah certainly
he7-le7(...)-e7 surely. assurative. ASSUR
ka7ax although. even if
kuchih formerly (counterfactual)
k'ab'eet necessarily. of necessity
ma7ak tun! of course!
mentEk therefore
miiyah perhaps. probably. maybe
olak almost. nearly
pat-al abilitative. ABIL
t-u-hah-il truly. surely
in-3SG.A-certain-ABST
uch-ak perhaps. maybe
happen-DIS
wal perhaps. possibly
yaan must. obligatory. OBLIG
ki7 good. well
a ki7=puustik u leki. Despolvas bien el plato. You have to dust off the plate well.\Tortillas_JK_02
a ki7=puus-t-ik u lek-il
2SG.A well dust-TRN-ITS 3SG.A plate-POSS
These occur between set A person markers and the verb stem. A number of these are manner adverbs.
lah completely
mex tu la=charkintah tu woro. He laid down all his whiskers. Jag_Rab_Kin_02
mex t-u lah=chal-kin-t-ah t-u wol-Vl
whiskers COM-3SG.A completely=lie.down-CAUS-TRN-CTS at-3SG.A heart-NOM
ki7 good. well
a ki7=puustik u leki. Despolvas bien el plato. You have to dust off the plate well.\Tortillas_JK_02
a ki7=puus-t-ik u lek-il
2SG.A well dust-TRN-ITS 3SG.A plate-POSS
chambe. slow(ly)
chan=be
little-go,path
Participles are adjectives based on transitive and intransitive verb stems.
ne ma7 chuka. insufficient
ne ma7 chuk-al
very not grab-PART
ch'ihal. elderly
ch'ih-al
grow-PART
ch'ura. soaked.
ch'ul-al
wet-PART
mukal. hidden
muk-al
hide-PART
nayal. be on it's side
nay-al
tilt-PART
ne ema7. cheap
ne em-a7an
very descend-PART
ne ko huka. sharp edged
ne koh ha7-ik-a7an
very edge sharp-ITS-PART
hita7an u nahi. roof of a house
hit-a7an u nah-il
weave-PART 3SG.A house-POSS
mEka7an. covered
mEk-a7an
cover-PART
muka7an. hidden
muk-a7an
hide-PART
kEla7an. drunk
kEl-a7an
drunk-PART
nok' menan. blanket
nok' men-a7an
cloth make-PART
perfect passive participle
Ex.
ALSO: -p-aj-a7an agentless passive intransitive
-k'-ah-a7an cleritive intransitive
kuran seated
kul-a7an
sit-PART
kuxlaha7an has lived
kux-l-ah-a7an
live-POSIT-DER-PART
kuxa7an lived
kux-a7an
live-PART
kurukbal. seated
kul-Vkbal
sit-PART
huybi. stirred
huy-bil
stir-passive participle
ki7ts'ahbil. slowly
ki7=ts'ah-bil
happen=give-passive participle
huhunak. straight
huhun-nak
one by one-PART
kapaknak
kap-Vk-nak
mount-ADJ.DER-PART
These adjective compounds take -e7en.
ah- MASC
a7 the
(A number of these function as adverbial modifiers)
7ich in
ti7, t- at, to, in, on, of, from
tu where
le the
lehi this
la7, lah that, this (further away)
lalah that
lahi this
lay this
layo7 that one
he7 here, this
he7la7 that very one
la7eh there
lala7eh that one, the former remark
mooki those
kan with
ketetel together with
ket etel
same with
yok'ol. on. above. over
yok'-Vl
over-NOM
(A number of these function as adverbial modifiers)
olak nearly
lah all
hach very
hach che7. very raw. EthBot_AM-01
(A number of these function as adverbial modifiers)
b'i=k'in when ever
he7 immediate future
ki7 just now
lahen as soon as
(A number of these function as adverbial modifiers)
b'in reportative (REPORT)
heleh assurative aspect, surely, certainly
ki7 quotative (QUOT)
ma7 no
mix neither. nor
mix ba7. nothing
neither thing
bay ka metik. mix ba7. What are you doing? Nothing.
bay k-a men-t-ik mix ba7al
what IRR-2SG.A make-TRN-ITS neither thing
mix k'Es ba7al. not even a little bit/thing.
neither almost thing
bay. what
tukra baykin ku t'an pero mE7. Pensó que es que habla, pero no...He thought what it is that is talking, but he didn't...\Frg_Mos_Kin_01
tuk-l-ah baykin k-u t'an pero mE7
think-NOM.DER-CTS what IRR-3SG.A speak but NEG
b'i- interrogative (INTER)
b'i=k'in when? on what day?
INTER=day
tu where
tu ka bin. Where are you going to?
tu k-a bin.
where IRR-2SG.A go
mEk. who
ka7. ka7ah. when. that
keh. que, that
ke ten kin hurik 7uh. That I string a necklace. Tortillas_CNK
ka7 ten k-in hul-ik 7uh
SUB 1SG.IPRO IRR-1SG.A insert-ITS necklace
(t-u-)men because
to-3SG.A-make
ele and so, and then
inah! here, take it!
he7! yes!
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